Arthur Millers finest work Essay Example for Free

Arthur Millers finest work EssayThe Crucible was written in 1952, and is considered to be Arthur Millers finest work not only because of the captivating story and impressive dramatic techniques but also because of the subtle parallels it draws with the events of the time. In the USA in the 1950s, the country was frighten of communism. This prompted the McCarthy era, in which anyone suspected of holding communist views or sympathies could suffer nasty consequences, including losing their job, or being excluded from certain places. The play is set in 1692 in Salem, milliampere during the height of the mass hysteria surrounding witchcraft. At the start of act three, Martha Corey is accused of reading fortunes. In this scene, we get a good look at each of the court officials. Both Hathorne and Parris are desperate to be part of the proceedings. Hathorne repeatedly calls for witnesses to be questioned or held in contempt, only to be ignored by Danforth.This shows the audience that H athornes opinions mean nothing, but it also shows us the power Danforth wields, not only over the population of Salem, but also over his own partners. there are many moments in the play when Hathorne and Parris get ignored or disrespected by Danforth, but early on in act three Hathorne asks Giles Corey be you gone daft, Corey? Corey replies Youre not a Boston judge yet. Youll not call me daft This shows the difference in standing between the two men, as Danforth would never stand for being scolded in such a way.Reverend Parris is shown similar disrespect by Danforth, as he is continually interrupted. This is also done by Giles Corey when he cuts Parris off mid-sentence and says I am asked the question, and I am old enough to answer it. This is also the first time in the act we check out Hales attitude begin to waver. When Danforth refuses to hear Coreys evidence Hale pleads Excellency, he claims to have hard evidence for his wifes defence. I think that in all justice you must- He is then cut off by Danforth.

Contribution Of Indian Mathematics History Essay

Contribution Of Indian maths History EssayMathematics is the study of song, and counting, and measuring, but that is only the beginning. Mathematics involves the study of fig patterns and relationships, to a fault. It is in like manner a way to communicate ideas, and perhaps more than anything, it is a way of reasoning that is unique to human beings. Mathematics plays a vital role in the modernization of this civilization. It is everywhere and affects the every sidereal day lives of people. Although it is abstract and theoretical spotledge, it emerges from the real world. It is also a way to communicate and analyze ideas, a tool for organizing and interpreting data and above all, perhaps a system of logical reasoning unique to man. Mathematics is a necessary fiber of former(a) sciences. In the words of Physicist Ric effortful Feynan (2002) Nature talks to us in the language of mathematics that is numbers, numerical rules and equations help us to deem sense of the world abou t us (The Book of Popular Science). Mathematics in some form or opposite has been since the early age of human civilization. But its use in todays world has assumed great importance, since without its action higher technology postnot be mastered and harnessed for increasing production of goods and services and promoting human welf be. Over the centuries at that place has been spectacular progress in the development of mathematics as a branch of knowledge. And without the application of mathematics on a wide scale no country can march forward in line with the general progress of human knowledge and thought. Therefore learning of mathematics and promoting the horizons of knowledge by advanced researches in mathematics should be over emphasized. Thus, mathematics is an grievous and inseparable part of human life. It has been existed and developed since the ancient era and the aim of this hold is to give a brief review of a few of the outstanding innovations introduced by Indian m athematics from ancient times to modern as Indias persona in the field of mathematics is immense and it should always be studied from a thoughtful perspective.Key WordsINTRODUCTIONIndia was the get downland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europes languages. India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in Christianity of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all. Will Durant, American Historian 1885-1981Mathematics is an important field of study. Mathematics is vital as it helps in developing lots of practical skills, in fact study of mathematics itself include the concepts related to the bend lives of human. It not only develops numerical skills and concepts, it also helps in developing the attitudes, interest, and appreciation and provides opportunities to develop ones own thinking. So, mathematics is undoubtedly a discipline which is imperative to know and study.Fig. 1, Importance of Ma thematicsCUsersnaveenDesktopUntitled.pngMathematics has played a very significant role in the development of Indian culture for millennia. Mathematical ideas that originated in the Indian subcontinent piss had a thoughtful impact on the world. In ancient time, mathematics was mainly employ in an auxiliary or applied role. Thus mathematical rules were used to solve problems in architecture and pull (as in the public serves of the Harrappan civilization) in astronomy and astrology (as in the Jain mathematicians) and in the construction of Vedic altars (as in the case of the Shulba Sutras of Baudhayana and his successors). By the sixth or fifth cytosine BCE, mathematics was studied for its own sake, as well as for its application in other fields of knowledge. In fact there does not seem to move over been a time in Indian history when mathematics was not being developed. Recent organize has unearthed many manuscripts, and what were previously regarded as inactive periods in Indi an mathematics are now cognize to have been very active. The picture is yet not complete, and it seems that there is much more to do in the field of the history of Indian mathematics. The challenges are twofold. First, there is the assign of locating and identifying manuscripts and of translating them into a language that is more familiar to modern scholars. Second there is the task of interpreting the significance of the work that was done. The time is ripe to make a major effort to develop as complete a picture as possible of Indian mathematics.The importance of mathematics in India can be seen by a well-know verse in Sanskrit of VedangJyotish (written kibibyte BC) asThis verse means that As the crown on the head of a peacock and as the gem on the hood of a snake, so stands Mathematics crowned above all disciplines of knowledge.This fact was well known to intellectuals of India that is wherefore they gave special importance to the development of mathematics, right from the beg inning. Indian mathematicians make great strides in developing arithmetic, algebra, geometry, infinite series expansions and coalescence. Indian works, through a alteration of translations, have had significant influence throughout the world.Mathematics in ancient times (3000 to 600 BCE)The oldest evidence of mathematical knowledge to Indians is being found in Indus valley Civilization. The metallic seals found in the excavations of Mohan-Jo-Daro and Harrapan indicates that the people of this civilization had the knowledge of numbers. It is also clear from the pottery and other archaeological remains that they had the knowledge of measuring stick and geometry regular(a) in crude form. The Indus valley civilization is considered to have existed around 3000 BCE. Two of its most famous cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, provide evidence that construction of buildings followed a standardized measurement which was decimal in nature. Here, we see mathematical ideas developed for the p urpose of construction. This civilization had an advanced brick-making technology (having invented the kiln). Bricks were used in the construction of buildings and embankments for flood control.The study of astronomy is considered to be even older, and there must have been mathematical theories on which it was based. Even in later times, we find that astronomy motivated considerable mathematical development, especially in the field of trigonometry.Much has been written about the mathematical constructions that are to be found in Vedic literature. In particular, the Shatapatha Brahmana, which is a part of the Shukla Yajur Veda, contains detailed descriptions of the geometric construction of altars for yajnas. Here, the brick-making technology of the Indus valley civilization was put to a new use. Supplementary to the Vedas are the Shulba Sutras. These texts are considered to date from 800 to 200 BCE. quartette in number, they are named later on their authors Baudhayana (600 BCE), Ma nava (750 BCE), Apastamba (600 BCE), and Katyayana (200 BCE). The sutras contain the famous theorem commonly attributed to Pythagoras. The Shulba Sutras introduce the concept of irrational numbers, numbers that are not the ratio of two strong numbers.It is interesting that the mathematics of this period seems to have been developed for solving practical geometric problems, especially the construction of religious altars. However, the study of the series expansion for authoritative functions already hints at the development of an algebraic perspective. In later times, we find a shift towards algebra, with simplification of algebraic formulate and summation of series playing as catalysts for mathematical discovery.Jain Mathematics (600 BCE to 500 CE)Just as Vedic philosophy and theology inspired the development of certain aspects of mathematics, so too did the rise of Jainism. Jain cosmology led to ideas of the infinite. This in turn, led to the development of the notion of orders of infinity as a mathematical concept. By orders of infinity, we mean a theory by which one set could be deemed to be more infinite than another. In modern language, this corresponds to the notion of cardinality. For a finite set, its cardinality is the number of elements it contains. However, we bespeak a more sophisticated notion to measure the size of an infinite set. In Europe, it was not until Cantors work in the nineteenth century that a fitting concept of cardinality was established.Besides the investigations into infinity, this period saw developments in several other fields such as number theory, geometry, computing, with fractions. In particular, the recursion formula for binomial coefficients and the Pascals trigon were already known in this period.The period 600 CE coincides with the rise and dominance of Buddhism. In the Lalitavistara, a biography of the Buddha which may have been written around the kickoff century CE, there is an incident about Gautama being asked to state the name of large powers of 10 starting with 10. He is able to give names to numbers up to 10 (tallaksana). The very fact that such large numbers had names suggests that the mathematicians of the day were comfortable thinking about very large numbers. It is hard to imagine calculating with such numbers without some form of place value organization.Brahmi Numerals, The place-value system and ZeroNo account of Indian mathematics would be complete without a discussion of Indian numerals, the place-value system, and the concept of zero. The numerals that we use even today can be traced to the Brahmi numerals that seem to have made their appearance in 300 BCE. But Brahmi numerals were not part of a place value system. They evolved into the Gupta numerals around 400 CE and subsequently into the Devnagari numerals, which developed slowly between 600 and 1000 CE.By 600 CE, a place-value decimal system was well in use in India. This means that when a number is written down, each sym bol that is used has an absolute value, but also a value relative to its slur. For example, the numbers 1 and 5 have a value on their own, but also have a value relative to their position in the number 15. The importance of a place-value system need hardly be emphasized. It would suffice to concern an often-quoted remark by La-place It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value a well-grounded and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its full-strength merit. But its very simplicity and the great ease which it has lent to computations put our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions and we shall appreciate the magnificence of the exertion the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men produced by ancient times.A place-value system of numerals was apparently known i n other cultures for example, the Babylonians used a sexagesimal place-value system as early as 1700 BCE, but the Indian system was the first decimal system. Moreover, until 400 BCE, The Babylonian system had an inherent ambiguity as there was no symbol for zero. Thus it was not a complete place-value system in the way we think of it today.The altitude of zero to the same status as other numbers involved difficulties that many brilliant mathematicians struggled with. The main problem was that the rules of arithmetic had to be formulated so as to include zero. While addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero were mastered, division was a more subtle question. Today, we know that division by zero is not cleared and so has to be excluded from the rules of arithmetic. But this understanding did not come all at once, and took the combined efforts of many minds. It is interesting to note that it was not until the seventeenth century that zero was being used in Europe.The Classi cal Era of Indian Mathematics (500 to 1200 CE)The most famous names of Indian mathematics belong to what is known as the classical era. This includes Aryabhata I (500 CE) Brahmagupta (700 CE), Bhaskara I (900 CE), Mahavira (900 CE), Aryabhatta II (1000 CE) and Bhaskarachrya or Bhaskara II (1200 CE).During this period, two centers of mathematical research emerged, one at Kusumapura near Pataliputra and the other at Ujjain. Aryabhata I was the dominant figure at Kusumapura. One of Aryabhatas discoveries was a method for solving linear equations of the form ax + by = c. Aryabhata devised a general method for solving such equations, and he called it the kuttaka (or pulverizer) method. It should be noted that Aryabhatas studied linear equations because of his interest in astronomy. Amongst other important theatrical roles of Aryabhata is his approximation of Pie to four decimal places (3.14146) and work on trigonometry.The other major centre of mathematical learning during this period w as Ujjain, which was home to Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya. The text Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta by Brahmagupta, published in 628 CE, dealt with arithmetic involving zero and minus numbers.As with Aryabhata, Brahmagupta was an astronomer, and much of his work was motivated by problems that arose in astronomy. He gave the famous formula for a solution to the quadratic equation. Brahmagupta also studied quadratic equation in two variables and sought solutions in whole numbers.This period closes with Bhaskaracharya (1200 CE). In his fundamental work on arithmetic (titled Lilavati) he refined the kuttaka method of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. The Lilavati is impressive for its originality and diversity of topics.Brahmagupta discovered a method, which he called samasa, by which given two solutions of the equation a third solution could be found. Brahmaguptas lemma was known one thousand years before it was rediscovered in Europe by Fermat, Legendre, and others.This method appe ars now in most standard text books and courses in number theory. The name of the equation is a historical accident.Mathematics in South IndiaMahavira is a mathematician belonging to the ninth century who was most likely from modern day Karnataka. He studied the problem of cubic and quartic equations and solved them for some families of equations. His work had a significant impact on the development of mathematics in South India. His book Ganita- sara- sangraha amplifies the work of Brahmagulpta and provides a very useful reference for the state of mathematics in his day.Another notable mathematician of South India was Madhava from Kerala. Madhava belongs to the fourteenth century. He discovered series expansions for some trigonometric functions such as the sine, cosine and arctangent that were not known in Europe until after Newton. In modern terminology, these expansions are the Taylor series of the functions in question.Madhava gave an approximation to Pie of 3.14159265359, which goes far beyond the four decimal places computed by Aryabhata. Madhavas work with series expansions suggests that he either discovered elements of the differential calculus or nearly did so.Mathematics in the Modern AgeIn more recent times there have been many important discoveries made by mathematicians of Indian origin. We shall mention the work of three of them Srinivasa Ramanujan, Harish-Chandra, and Manjul Bhargava.Ramanujan (1887- 1920) is perhaps the most famous of modern Indian mathematicians. Though he produced significant and beautiful results in many aspects of number theory, his most lasting discovery may be the arithmetic theory of modular forms. In an important paper published in 1916, he initiated the study of the Pie function. Ramanujan proved some properties of the function and conjectured many more. As a result of his work, the modern arithmetic theory of modular forms, which occupies a key place in number theory and algebraic geometry, was developed by Hecke.Har ish-Chandra (1923- 83) is perhaps the least known Indian mathematician outside of mathematical circles. He began his rush as a physicist, working under Dirac. In his thesis, he worked on the re depictation theory of the group SL2 (C). This work convinced him that he was really a mathematician, and he spent the remainder of his academic life working on the representation theory of semi-simple groups. For most of that period, he was a professor at the engraft for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His Collected Papers published in four volumes contain more than 2,000 pages. His style is known as precise and thorough and his published work tends to treat the most general case at the very outset. This is in contrast to many other mathematicians, whose published work tends to evolve through special cases. Interestingly, the work of Harish-Chandra formed the basis of Langlandss theory of automorphic forms, which are a vast generalization of the modular forms considered by Ramanuja n.CONCLUSIONThe present mathematical knowledge has not dropped as a bolt from the blue, nor a product of some magical tricks. The apparently ready-made knowledge and results have been achieved after centuries of efforts, often painful, by hundreds of mathematicians and historians through the ages. Lots of discoveries and inventers contributed to the fruits, facilities and luxuries which we enjoy today were the contribution of Indian mathematicians. From the notion of zero to the modern concept of computational number theory, their contribution is significant. It is without doubt that mathematics today owes a huge debt to the outstanding contributions made by Indian mathematicians over many hundreds of years. What is quite surprising is that there has been a reluctance to recognize this and one has to conclude that many famous historians of mathematics found what they expected to find, or perhaps even what they hoped to find, rather than to realize what was so clear in front of them. Kim Plofker from Netherland says that Indian mathematical science is extremely important and has a significant effect on the worlds knowledge as it is today. The privation of available resources has kept us under informed about the developments that have taken place in India. It is the need of the hour to carry forward the legacy of great mathematicians so as to encourage and nurture the glorious tradition of the country in mathematics. The ingenious method of expressing every possible number utilise a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more pronto appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of ancient times, Archimedes and Apollonius.

Prostitution in 18th Century

Prostitution in 18th CenturyProstitution in europium in the 18th vitamin C was a widely authorized in the European society despite religious leaders and the government efforts to contain it. Pornography was a flourishing business. Even poets wrote about these handsome sexy girls. It was one of the few arenas that women could gain economical independence.1The harlotry could be varietyified into different classes. There those who were mistress to prominent men, those worked in urban taverns, afternoon tea parlor, bawdy houses, theatres and even on the streets. The mistresses attained social success, riches and even derived power from prostitution. Prostitutes especially from low socio-economic background were vulnerable and subjected to cruelty, sanction and reformation throughout the 18th century.Background informationProstitution has been in existence throughout human history and it is regarded as the oldest profession. During medieval times prostitution in Europe was toler ated with public bathtubs giving prostitutes channel of contact with their customers. In other places such as Victoria, England prostitution was disgraceful but at the same time accepted a necessary social and sexual outlet for men.2It was considered to be less evil if a middle-class man engages in a sexual family with a prostitute other than being engaged in a sexual relationship with another middle-class mans wife or daughter. 18th century was tremendous for England. It was the time it became Great Britain, lost thirteen of its colonies, launched industrial innovation and achieved parliamentary government.3It was an age when men struggled to be reasonable. Life was leisurely and everything was elegant. This created an enabling environment for flourishing of prostitution. Prostitution gave men of the middle and high class sexual gratification which they could not obtain from their partners. During this era capitalism flourished making the political class swim in riches leaving t he lower class people (those who worked in industries such as textile industries) to live in abject poverty. thus many another(prenominal) engaged in prostitution for financial gain.As mentioned earlier, the society tolerated prostitution. England being a male dominant society, men were freer to engage in sleeping around before marriage and within marriage. They could give gold to buy sex. In contrast women rarely paid money in exchange for sex on the contrary they went into prostitution for monitory gain. They desperately required financial independence but there were very few opportunities for them to achieve it. Thus prostitution was the secondary channel for them. Presence of public bathtubs in England in the 18th century where prostitutes could freely find customers shows that prostitution was widely accepted in England. Vern and Bonnie Bollough avow that prostitutes provided men with sexual outlet before and during marriage.4Initially, poets praised prostitution, represe nting young prostitutes as healthy, fresh and lovely.5This shows that prostitutes were held in high social status. The role was significantly accepted in the society. Prostitutes in capital of the United Kingdom could even advertise their services on card which were distributed throughout the metropolis.6However over time, this perception changed. The society later understood that there were minus consequences of prostitution. There was increased spread of diseases, mother fucker children and poverty tarnished the initial render.7Perfect image of a mother flourished as sensibility and concern for the health overpowered the nature of sexual experimentation. Prostitution became ridicule in public discussion. It was represented as filthy, degraded and diseased.Why prostitution flourished in England in the 18th centuryseveral(prenominal) factors led to flourishing of prostitution in England and more so in capital of the United Kingdom in the 18th century. London being a port city re ceived many sailors. There were several districts in the city that provided for sailors.8One of the best known districts was Ratcliffe Highway that lay on the north of Wapping water-front.9Although subsequent kings of England do effort to keep prostitution away from London, they did not succeed ofttimes. Streets like Shareditch, Petticoat Lane, Cheapsides,s Grope cunt Lane, and Clerkenwell were very common with prostitutes.The period between 1750 and 1850 was characterized by great economic change in England.10British agricultural revolution in the 18th century was characterized by high agricultural output. This led to world explosion and people had look for alternative jobs to meet their needs and those of the population. It is this agricultural revolution that ushered in industrial revolution. During the agricultural revolution women used to work on board their husbands in the farms. However, industrial revolution at the end of 18th century caused people to migrate to the urban areas to seek better pay in the industries.11 launching of machinery made it difficult for women to work in industries and therefore other social duties were relegated to women. These jobs were not well paying. As a result some women ventured into prostitution in order to become economically sufficient.Industrial revolution great Britain lead to improvement of economic status of many people. There was money to spend on anything elegant including prostitutes especially by the people of the high-class. More bathhouses, theatres and alehouses were opened in London. Bathhouses mainly concentrated around Covent Garden and unlike the stews of earlier centuries they were more luxurious. Theatres and alehouses became impudently fashionable coffeehouses and public tea-gardens such as the Dog and Duck in St. Goerges Fields.12 more or less brothels could even have a card table among the attractors of the house.Lack of pie-eyed government policies to contain the vice made it to flourish inst ead. Decrees to close down alehouses and theaters made prostitution to spread to other areas. The involvement of aristocrats in prostitution furnish it more. Prostitution cut across all social classes. Unlike the poor who even live entirely on the streets, elegant women practiced prostitution in Kings Place off Pall Mall or Miss Fawklands in St. James Street. The high-class prostitutes catered for wealthy men, aristocrats and members of parliament.13They did their trade in freedom without being upset by any threat of official hindrance.High economic independence associated with women who practiced prostitution also fueled increase of prostitution in London in the 18th century. Mistresses to aristocrats and members of parliament were held in high esteem by other women in the society. This motivated other women to go into prostitution to gain economic independence.Effects of increase in prostitution on lives of the peopleThe government of England tried very much to reduce prostituti on in England and particularly in London. Laws were put in place to close down brothels and alehouses which were areas of trade for the prostitutes. Those who defied the law were convicted and jailed making their lives even more miserable.Most of the women who engaged in prostitution were teens. They never wanted to get pregnant has this would interfere with their trade. They used different methods to protect themselves from becoming pregnant. Chemicals and plant extracts such as wormwood, hyssop and fassron among others were used without much consideration of the harm they might cause.14When these methods failed they would wait until the baby is born and then kill. Some prostitutes also died in their effort to abort the fetus. All this consequences of prostitution bear upon their psychological well-being. This added misery to their poor state.Increase in prostitution increased incidences of venereal diseases mainly syphilis. Many died of the disease for fear of seeking treatment. This was a component part stigma attached to the disease even at the hospitals. For example the addition of wards in Lock Hospital allowed discrimination of patients and women thought to be blamable in the contraction of the disease were isolated from the innocent.15Men of high social status could not also seek treatment ascribable to fear of tarnishing their social standing. Some of them being married transmitted the disease to their partners. Who suffered the brunt of stigma attached to the disease although innocent. Venereal diseases and the stigma attached to it cut short further the lives of the people of London al alert languishing in poverty.Prostitutes state of lifeLife was very difficult for the prostitutes especially after the initial image of prostitutes as healthy, fresh and beautiful had been impair were regarded as diseased, and disgraceful. Their social status dwindled and the society alienated them. They had caused a lot of problems in families and the society in general. Abandoned children were on the increase because they were not ready to take up responsibility of parenthood. Some left these children with their old parents who were burdened with responsibility of bring up the children. Worse still, the rise in prevalence of venereal diseases was attributed to prostitution. They became people who should be sympathized with. Slump in their social status caused them to be objects of oppression, exploitation and coercion. Life became so hard for the prostitutes. They became people who should be sympathized with and many organizations sprang up to assist them.The health status of prostitutes worsened with the spread of venereal diseases like syphilis. The sickly could no longer go out on the streets to earn money which further aggravated their health status because they could not afford treatment. With no source of income even affording food was difficult.The economic status of prostitution reduced when the image of prostitution as a noble jo b changed. The fact that they were no longer well tolerated by the society meant fewer clients. Clients became even fewer due to fear of contracting venereal diseases. Government policies directed to reducing prostitution in London and other cities of England saw some brothels and alehouses closed. Places where prostitutes could meet their clients freely became fewer and those that remained could not be accessible to the poor class of prostitutes. They became even poorer with very small(a) to sustain themselves.Most of the women who engaged in prostitution were from poor background. They had little education that could have helped them to find other kinds of work away from prostitution unlike the women from high social status who engaged in prostitution on part-time. They had education that helped them to find work elsewhere. With kings decrees to close down brothels and alehouses, prostitutes from poor socio-economic class could not be able to find work elsewhere making bring low further into poverty. They went on practicing prostitution in secret and of course with fear of interference by the law. On the other hand, women of high socio-economic status who practiced prostitution were less affected by laws imposed against prostitution. Even when the king gave decree of closing down brothels and alehouses those that belonged to people of high-class were never interfered with. Those who were mistresses to aristocrats and members of parliament felt undertake from the law.ConclusionProstitution in the 18th century has two stages. The initial stage is where it is widely tolerated in the society and even poets sang praises of prostitutes. They were beautiful, lovely and healthy. The provided a sexual outlet for men. Its increase was fueled by the explosion of population during the British agricultural revolution. The farms could no longer provide employment for everybody. The Agricultural revolution lead to industrial revolution that saw introduction of machinery in the industries. Women were believed to be unable of driving the machines due to their weaker body as compared to men. The society relegated other duties to women and many joined cottage industry, others became domestic servants and others prostitution. Some women opted for prostitution a means of earning money that was so much needed and it was tolerated by society. However, the image of prostitution took a twist in mid-18th century. Due to rise in prevalence of syphilis attributed to prostitution as well as increase in number of illegitimate children, society started regarding prostitution as diseased and disgraceful. The prostitutes suffered alienation from the society, exploitation, poor economic status, ill-health, and became objects of oppression and coercion.

Strategic Personnel Considerations Human Resources

Strategic Personnel Considerations Human ResourcesIntroductionThis report critically analysis all the issues affecting the organisation to enter into an global commercialise. M any companies kindred Proctor Gamble, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, MS, Tesco atomic number 18 moving towards the global market beca employ revenue maximization. IHRM is an inherent part of the Human resource management. Human Resource Management (HRM), is the process of policies and practices which involved in carrying out the people or human resource aspects of a management position which includes recruiting, screening, grooming, rewarding and appraising, (Dessler, 2008).When companies atomic number 18 operating their bank linees out of the national boundaries than it is becomes the multinational enterprises. Multinational companies be the firms that are headquartered in angiotensin-converting enzyme country that have operations in one or more than other countries, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p.7). Some of the m ajor(ip) multinational companies are Wal-Mart (US), BP (UK), Exxon Mobil (US), General Motors (US) or Toyota (Japan).The reasons for going in the external market are to create an economic integration and increase the market share and companies are using una uni create supranational entry methods like mergers or learnings, joint-ventures, franchising to pull together the competitive advantages in the international market. However, there are some challenges in the international market such as the pagan differences, smorgasbord in the marchplace or the pressures from the rules and regulations of the government and the trade unions.International HRM deals with all of these issues regarding the management of human capital in an international context. International HRM is the process of selecting, schooling and developing and compensating personnel in overseas positions, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 354). There are some challenging factors in the global work environment such as cu ltural diversity at the workplace and thats why the allowance practices may alter from one country to another and employment laws and regulations pull up stakes be differ from one country to another as well.The strategic region of HRM in an international context pull up stakes also be different than in the domestic firms. The strategic role of HRM is complex enough in a purely domestic firm, but is more complex in an international market, where profound differences between countries in labour market, culture, legal ashess, economic systems and the complicate staffing, management and ontogenesis, performance evaluation and compensation activities, (Hill, 2009, p.626)The main approaches to IHRM can be ethnocentric, polycentric or geocentric depending on the personality of the country and its cultural background. In an ethnocentric approach there is a belief that ones own way of doing things is superior to that of others and it can be a major challenge for the IHRM. Ethnocentri sm can be a major challenge for international HRM and these challenges include recognising differences, combining the advantages from different styles and approaches, adjusting and conciliateing to succeed with different people in different partnerships in different markets, (Rugman, et al., p. 134). In an ethnocentric firm, the top management will dominate the employees working for the organisation. Ethnocentric firms are where top management is dominated by home-country nationals and procedures and management styles that are transferred from the head office and imposed on regional subsidiaries in place of local ways of doing things, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p.147).On the other hand, the polycentric firms are sounding likes a semi-autonomous organisation where restriction will put in some of the departments and other departments may not be influenced by restricted rules. This act like a federation of semi-autonomous organisations with financial controls or strict reporting structur es holding them unitedly and subsidiaries are able to reflect the local cultural norms, and headquarters appreciates the assume for different organisations designs, procedural norms, reward systems etc. as long as profits flow to the centre, (Collinson, et al., 2009, p. 147).Furthermore, the geocentric organisations are seen to be an ideal, collaborative and meritocratic form of global organisation for example, Unilever. It includes an equal sharing of power and responsibility between headquarters and subsidiary, senior management promoted according to the ability rather than nationality and subsidiaries that share global accusatives with passenger cars focusing beyond national market interests, (Collinson, et al., 2009, p. 147).Furthermore, it is required to have a vocation strategy when operating in the international market. The role of IHRM is to fulfil the objective of the business level strategy and fulfil the corporate strategy. Corporate strategy is concerned with the overall purpose and scope of the business to meet stakeholder expectations. This is a all-important(a) level since it is heavily influenced by investors in the business and acts to guide strategic decision-making throughout the business. Corporate strategy is often stated explicitly in a mission statement, (Johnson, et al., 2008)The objective of this report is to identify the different issues which are affecting in the international HRM and the ways of overcoming the challenges of IHRM. This report critically analysis and evaluates all the factors associate to the IHRM in an international context.Main BodyPreviously people management was connect to the managing people within the organisation but they never treated as resources. Human resource policies should be integrated with the strategic business planning because strategic HRM is emphasizing the integration of the HR policies with both one another with the business planning, (Keith Sisson, 1990).There is a strategic significan ce of the HRM in the international market. Strategic HRM thinks people as most important asset and it deals with the improvement of human resources. stack are the most important asset and the people management is the responsibility of everyone and far too important to be left to personnel managers. It follows that HRM sine qua nons to be owned by line managers and by senior managers and by implication is too important to be left to personnel managers, (Guest, 1991). HR managers need to utilise the policies strategically in order to manage their people and to gain the competitive advantages.International information and DevelopmentTraining and development is an important aspect of IHRM. Training means the process of teaching new employees the basic skills they need to perform their jobs, (Dessler, 2008, p-294). The difference between the local training and development and the international training and development is to get more experiences from the international market. Many com panies like IBM, Microsoft are sending their in different counties to get the international knowledge and experiences.Challenges of IHRMThe challenges of HRM include the standardization and alteration of work practices of different countries.HRM in the host country context standardisation and adaption of work practices such as IHRM are using some of the strategies of making the standardisation such as language training, cultural adaptation and competitive compensation. One of the major aspects of IHRM is the adaptability which is an individuals ability to adapt a cultural change. It is important for the HR managers to adapt along with the different cultures if they want to run their business in an international context.The horizontal surface of integration of policies within the local country such as the degree of integration of policies within the local country will depend on the self-reliance, age, experience and education and health and family status.HRM implications of langua ge standardisation like there are some HRM implications of language standardisation of HRM by the local companies by language learning. Learning the local language can be dish outful because it will help the managers to learn and beneathstand the languages of the colleagues and help to increase the performance of the organisation.Integration between IHRM Strategy and Business StrategyIt is important to maintain the integration between the IHRM strategies with the business strategy. There are some strategies which will help to make an adjustment between the IHRM and the business strategy such as the transition strategies. Transition strategies are designed to help smooth movement from foreign to domestic assignments, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 358). Some of the other strategies which are affecting the IHRM are the following-Repatriation agreement This agreement will tell how long a person will stay in an overseas place. It is an agreement that spells out how long a person will be po sted overseas and sets for the type of job that will be given to the person upon returning, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 358).Rent or maintain the ostracizes home during the overseas tour under this agreement the company can edit out the financial burden for the managers who went for a particular place over a tree-year to four-year plans. Both Union Carbide and the Aluminum companionship of America have such arrangements which is used to reduce to financial burden, (Rugman, et al., p. 359).Assign a senior executive as a sponsor for every manager posted abroad some of the companies put some senior executives when every manager went to visit in different places. This masters that there is someone looking after each expatriate and ensuring that his or her performance, compensation and career path are on track. When the expatriate is schedule to return home, the sponsor begins working internally to ensure a suitable position, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 359). Many companies like IBM and Carbide use this form of the mentoring process.Maintaining the on-going communications with expatriate managers this strategy will ensure and let the managers know what is happening in the home country. it will ensure that what is happening in the local office and if they are scheduled to be home on leave for any protracted period of time, the company works them into projects at headquarters and in this way they can maintain their visibility at headquarters and increase the likelihood that are viewed as regular members of the management staff rather than the outsiders, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 359)The impact of IHRM effects on cultureCulture is a major aspect of International HRM where there are some challenges in the cultural diversity in the workplace. Corporate culture is the shared values, traditions, customs, philosophy and policies of a corporation also the professional ambience that grows from this and affects behaviour and performance, (Rugman, et al., p. 132).Managing the cross culture arises from the international market situation where the managers from the international patent company need to understand the local employees from the host country and it may require different organisations structure and HRM procedures.Because of globalisation there is an impact of cultural diversity in the work place. People from different countries are working together or they are moving from one place to another place more easily because of this globalisation. To manage this cultural diversity HR managers can use Hofstedes cultural dimension in the national cultures such as the following-Power distance The cultural differences can be understood by the cultural difference among the two countries. This refers to the extent to which people in a particular culture accept and expect that power in institutions and organisations is, and should be distributed unequally, (Edwards Rees, 2010).Uncertainty escape Another important element of understanding the cultural diffe rences is the uncertainty avoidance. This indicates the extent to which people in a culture feel nervous or threaten by uncertainty and ambiguity and hence create institutions and rules to try to avoid them, (Edward Rees, 2010)Individualism/collectivism It will determine the nature of the culture in any particular country. In an individual culture people tend to look after their own interests and those of their immediate family, whereas in collectivist culture there is a tighter social framework in which each person respects the group to which he or she belongs, (Edward Rees, 2010)Masculinity/ femininity Depending on the masculinity or femininity structure the culture will be different. In a masculine culture the dominant values are said to be ambition, assertiveness, performance and the acquisition of money and material objects, where as in a so-called feminine culture values such as the quality of life, maintaining personal relationships and care for the sluttish and the envir onment are emphasized, (Edward Rees, 2010).Time orientation Finally, the time orientation will determine the cultural influences in any country. originally termed as confusion vigour and this is related to the time horizons that people in different cultures are oriented towards with some looking several years ahead in declining upon particular courses of proceeding whilst others are more generated to the shorter term, (Edward Rees, 2010)It is important to understand the cultural diversity at the workplace and manage them accordingly and Hofstedes cultural dimension will help the HRM manager to make the decisions. The concept of an expatriate can help the international organization to expand their market operations in different countries and to gain the competitive advantages. An expatriate (in abbreviated form, expat) is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country and culture other than that of the persons upbringing or legal residence, (Mercer, 1996). The role of an expatriate is to change the shape of the cultural influence by living on that particular place.Resourcing Strategy in IHRMResourcing strategy in IHRM deals with the all the issues related to the management of human resources. It considers the consequences of international cultures on employee performance and welfare and explores the consequences (such as diversity issues) of the various employee resourcing options, for example hiring local staff vs. international appointments. It also examines training and development in an international environment and the complexities of multinational reward management practice, (www.koganpage.com, 2010). Understanding the resourcing strategy can help to gain the competitive advantages in the international market.Recruitment of Labour MarketOne of the major challenges for the multinational companies is the varying demand of the organised demand of the labour around the world. Because of national differences the nature of economic, semi policy- making and legal systems can create a variety of labour relations systems and strategy. In managing labour relations the most multinational companies use a conspiracy of centralization and decentralization with some decision being made on headquarters and others being handled by the mangers on site, (Colinson, et al., 2009, p. 366). For example, US companies are exercising more centralized management control and close reporting system and UK and EU companies are more decentralized and less control on the reporting system and flexible management control.Understanding the labour market is an important aspect of the IHRM and companies need to consider the labour market relations with the companys goals and objectives. Labour relations practices vary widely in the international arena, for example, union-management relations and industry democracy approaches are different throughout the Europe and these dramatically differ from those in Japan, (Rugman, et al., 2009, p. 377)Labour market can support the international organisations by decreasing the labour costs because in some countries the labour costs are lower than the other countries and it will help to gain the competitive advantages as well. A strong relationship between the labour market and the international organisation will help to gain the competitive advantages in the global market.LegislationUnderstanding the labour legislation in the international market is required to make an effective IHRM activities, in an international market such as labour laws, rules and regulations from the labour union imposed in any particular countries, compensation and payment activities based on the international laws and regulation etc.According the porters generic strategies the IHM can make the profit either by cost leadership or a differentiation strategy. cultural awarenessOne of the major aspects of International HRM is to understand the cultural differences in different countries such as the cultural difference and the cross-culture influences among the people living on those places. IHRM should take a lead in the development of organisations intercultural competence as well as in managing groups and aggroups, (Tung, 2008). The growing concern about the cross cultural activities includes the awareness of culture by learning making a suitable multicultural environment where people from different cultural background will work together as a cross-cultural perspective.Political dimensionBecause of globalisation companies are moving towards the global business environment because of revenue generation and enlargement of market share in the emerging market. The political dimensions towards the international markets are growing but there are some risks associated with the international business. The different political risks are affecting the firms such as political philosophies in different countries made by the local government, social unrest, terrorism or arm conflict, salary increase nationali sm, competing between the religious groups or the newly created international alliances, (Collinson, et al., 2009, p. 392). In contrast, the careful planning and implementation of HR planning can help the HR managers to reduce the political risk in the internal market.ConclusionInternational HRM is a challenging issue in modern business environment and the HR managers need to carefully implement those policies and procedures related to the IHRM. The role of HR managers is to adopt the new cultural diversity and employee diversity in the workplace. It can be done by the training and development activities and employee empowerment. Employee empowerment can help the organisation to increase the profit and to get the competitive advantages by the use of flexible working team and rewarding the employees who made a big contribution in getting the results.International recruitment policy making need to be effective by selecting the employees from different locations such as outsourcing or offshoring for example, Unilever and PG are one of the most successful organisation for making the outsourcing activities in the world market, (Edward Rees, 2009). Furthermore the international compensation plan needs to be in line with the countrys rules and regulations and government policies and procedures. The concept of competitive compensation can be a solution for the international HR managers to overcome the challenges in the global market.Finally, globalisation is affecting the HRM in different ways and the managers role is to fit them according to the requirements of the company. The overall objectives of an organisation are to maximise their profit and the HR managers need to be concerned about fulfilment of the companys goals and objectives.Some of the limitations need to be considered when making this essay such as the special(a) amount of sources of information in an international country and the limited accessibility of the sources of information. However, this ess ay can give an idea about the IHRM and their uses and disadvantages in the international context.

Edna Pontellier’s Broken Wings in Kate Chopins The Awakening :: Chopin Awakening Essays

Broken Wings in The Awakening Between the caged repeat with a huge cage outside the door that repeated Get away Get away Damnation and Mr. Pontellier s rebuke to his wife that she was burn down beyond recognition, and the description of him looking at his wife as a valuable piece of personal property which has suffered some damage. the antenna went up. There is non a welcoming beckon in the very beginning and we are alerted to the dysfunction of a marriage all with a page or two. It is a sad beginning. The introduction of Robert Lebrun along with Edna sets up the triangle. We are told that Robert talked a good deal about himself. He was very young, and did not know any better. Mrs. Pontellier talked a little more about herself for the same reason. Each was interested in what the other said. Robert from the onset has plans although he and Edna talk she has none. When Mr. Pontellier returns from Kleins hotel and awakens Edna, with criticism about her care of the children , subse quently a night out with the boys. We begin to see him as thoughtless and as eligible as Edna for the same criticism. She goes into the adjoining bedroom and cries. This indifference on the part of her husband triggers, An indescribable oppression, which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness, filled her whole being with a vague anguish. At this operate the antenna were up and the story began to accelerate. We are told that Mrs. Pontellier was not a mother woman. The mother women in the story are easy to know they (were) flutter about with extended, protecting wings when any harm, real or imaginary, threatened their precious brood. They grew wings as ministering angels. I noticed along with the caged birds in the fountain of the story the number of bird images throughout. It is Mademoiselle Reisz that tells Edna, The bird that would soar above the level plain of tradition and prejudice must have strong wings. It is a sad spectacle to see the weaklings b ruised, exhausted, fluttering back to earth.Edna refers to her new home as the pigeon-house. It pleased her. It at once assumed the intimate character of a home, temporary hookup she herself invested it with charm which it reflected like a warm glow.

Designing a Metaphysical Zone near the Miami River Essay -- Public Pol

A METAPHYSICAL ZONEWe should accept the experimental nature of our prototype we can agitate the design as far as our theories will wholeow, since whatever we produce may be tested by others. Our position within electracy is not contrasted that of Plato in literacy, if only in the sense of what we are attempting to do (and not what we have achieved). Plato is credited with being the first person in the Western customs duty to isolate and work purely within a conceptual discourse (he invented Philosophy). The first concept to be treated in this fully abstract government agency is justice, and in a dialogue such as THE REPUBLIC Plato discusses what justice is--asks after its essence, its inner nature, its being--as opposed to dramatizing its dispersed qualities in a series of tarradiddle actions, as the tragedians were still doing, not to mention the status of such a thought in the oral epics.When we isolate the Miami River as a zone, we are raise it to the status of an idea, or e ven of a category. As the Greeks assimilated literacy, the term eidos evolved from its original usage in Homer--what one sees, appearance, shape--to the abstract forms (supra intelligent reality, eternal, beyond the merely sensible) (Peters, 46-47). In Platos metaphysics (his theory of what there is in the world, what is real) a set of eide evolved--the Good, the Beautiful, the One. At first there seemed to be an eidos for each class of things (ethical eide, mathematical eide). Then a hierarchy emerged, with certain final forms (Aristotle called them categories) that did not mix among themselves, such as Existence, the Same, the Different, Rest, Motion (49).CommentWhat we are doing is generating an electrate mode of reasoning by means of an elongated analogy ... ...rds and meanings most commonly used in such systems ( If you hear a crow cawing on your righthand side, be very cautious in all you do that day). Our consulting works this analogy at two levels first, our zone consists of the Miami River and the movements, positions, identity, and cries of its denizens--Haitians, coast guard, Italian taxi drivers, and the like. Second, the form (shape, eidos) of our practice adapts some of the features of divination special to the Carribean basin, specifically aspects of Santeria and Vodun ritual. We may also find useful parallels with the notion of the augur as bird watcher, if we think of our interface metaphor of tourism.WORKS CITEDPeters, F. E., GREEK philosophic TERMS A HISTORICAL LEXICON (New York NYU, 1967).Telesco, Patricia, FUTURE TELLING A COMPLETE GUIDE TO DIVINATION (Freedom, CA. Crossing, 1998).

Theater in the 1920s Essay -- Plays

In the 1920s, the theater was considered the scene of a curious conflict between world and a freer form of theatricality. (MacGowen, viii) There were many famous playwrights of the era. Among these were Thornton disorderly and, probably the most prominent playwright, Eugene ONeill. These two authors used many of the same themes in their writing romanticism was a popular one. However, they each also used themes and styles of writing that set them apart from other writers.The values that were promoted in the works of Thornton Wilder included those of Christian morality, the community, the family, and the appreciation of everyday pleasures. (Wilder, Discovering Authors) Wilder was more of a realist than a romantic, though in his writings emotions run deeper than wild, a romantic quality. (Grebanier, 5) His plays were meant to bring fresh life and meaning to the terms of the spiritual life. (Burbank, 21) Some other themes include faith, love, humility, sacrafice, and the role and resp onsibility of the artist in society. (Burbank, 22)Eugene ONeills plays consistent...